The Pallavas were one of the greatest dynasties of South India. They played significant role in the political, social and cultural history of South India. The Pallavas were associated with Tondaimandalam, the land between the north Pennar and north Vellar rivers.

Origin, Foundation and Capital of Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas were originally the rulers of the Andhra region. After the end of the Satavahana rule, the Pallavas asserted not only independence but also moved to Tondamandalam and settled there. From this region they extended their sway over the entire Dravida country with Kanchi as their capital.

Must read: Temple Architecture in South India under Pallava Dynasty

Pallavas rose to the power during the later part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Pallava king, Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra, which was known at that time as “Karmarashtra”.

In order to understand political history of Pallavas, their rule can be broadly divided and studied under two main sections:

1 . the early Pallavas, and

2 . the imperial or later Pallavas.

Early Pallava Rulers

It is believed that Simhavarma ( 280- 335 CE ) was the founder of Pallava dynasty and Sivaskandavarman who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century CE seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas. His dominions extended from the Krishna to the South Pennar and upto the Bellary district. He had performed several Vedic sacrifices.

Vishnugopa was the next important Pallava ruler. During his reign Samudragupta invaded South India and defeated him. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription mentions that during the annexation of Samudragupta during 345-350 CE Vishnugopa was the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram.

The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Chola king Karikala Chola during the time of Trilochna Pallava (350 – 360 CE). This resulted in establishing Karikala’s authority over some parts of the Andhra region.

Nandivarman I was the last of the early Pallava kings. During his time the Pallava kingdom experienced the invasion of the Kalabhras.

Later Pallava Rulers or Imperial Pallavas

Simhavishnu (575 – 590 CE)

Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras and laid foundation for the establishment of the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas”. He also defeated the rulers of Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms. He was the master of the entire region between the Krishna and the Kaveri. He was a worshiper of Vishnu and had the title Avanisimha (lion of the earth) and Simhavishnupottarayan. According to a literary tradition, great poet Bharavi visited his court.

Mahendravarman I (590 – 630 CE)

Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I. He was a versatile genius. He was not only a soldier and statesman, but also a religious reformer, an architect, a poet and a musician.

He took the titles of: Mattavilasa (Addicted to pleasures), Chitrakarapuli (Tiger among the painters), Lalitankura (Charming offspring), Gunabhara (Virtuous), Chattakari (builder of temples) and Vichitrachitta (Curious minded).

The long drawn Pallava-Chalukya conflict began during this period. Mahendravarman I was defeated by Pulakesin II at a place called Pullalur near Kanchi. Pulakesin II almost reached the Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman purchased peace by ceding their Northern provinces to the Pulakesin II.

Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism but converted to Saivism under the influence of Tirunavukkarasu or Appar. He studied music under Rudracharya and composed exercises for the practice of students on a variety of Vina known as Parivadini.

Mahendravarman I has authored the Sanskrit satire “Mattavilasa Prahasana‟.

Mahendravarman I is credited with the introduction of rock-cut temples in the Pallava territory. He was a great builder of cave temples. The rock cut caves at Mandagapattu, Dalavanur and Tiruchirapalli were excavated during his time.

Mahendravarman claims in his Mandagappattu inscription that his shrine to Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu was made without using traditional materials such as brick, timber, metal and mortar. Mahendravarman’s rock temples are usually the mandapa type with a pillared hall or the mandapa in front and a small shrine at the rear or sides.

The Jain paintings found in the rock cut caves at Sittannavasal located in the present Pudukkottai region are attributed to him. His love of painting and his proficiency in the art is attested by his title Chitrakarapuli.

Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE)

Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. He had the title Mahamalla or Mamalla which means “great wrestler‟.

The Pallava-Chalukya conflict that was started by his father was successfully continued by him. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. He defeated Pulakesin II, in three battles including that at Manimangalam near Kanchi in 642 CE. Pulakesin II lost his life and hence Narasimhavarman assumed the title Vatapikonda (the conqueror of Vatapi).

Another notable achievement of Narasimhanvarman I was his novel expedition to Srilanka, to reinstate the Sinhalese prince Manavarman.

During his reign Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and noted that Buddhism and Jainism flourished in the city besides Hindusim. He also noted that it was the birth place of the celebrated Dharmapala, who became the abbot of the great Vihara of Nalanda. According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and Ghatika of Kanchi served as a prominent centre of learning.

Besides he was a great builder having constructed Mamallappuram and created the Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas) during his reign.

Mahendravarman II (668 – 670 CE)

Mahendravarman II ruled for a very short period of two years, since he was killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I. He also captured Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas and ruled over it for a short period.

Paramesvaravarman I (670 – 695 CE)

He made several attempts to defeat the Chalukyas in which he was successful in the end. To celebrate his victory over the Chalukyas he took the titles of:

Ugradanda (ruling with a rod of iron) and “the destroyer of the city of Ranarasika”.

Ranarasika was the title taken by the Chalukyan emperor Vikramaditya I.

Narasimhavarman II (695 – 722 CE)

Paramesvaravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman II. He had the title “Rajasimha‟. He enjoyed a peaceful reign and credited with the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. He had the titles like Shankara Bhakta and Agamapriya.

He was also a great patron of art and letters. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.

Paramesvaravarman II (728-731 CE)

Narasimhavarman II was succeeded by his son Paramesvaravarman II. The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign. The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked Kanchipuram and the Pallava king had to buy peace at a heavy price. However, he was killed in a war with the Ganga king, an ally of the Chalukyas.

Nandivarman II (731 – 795 CE)

Paramesvaravarman II died without any heir to the throne. After the death of Paramesvaravarman II the Simhavishnu line of Pallava kings came to an end. A mild war of succession was started in between the various branches of Pallavas. But the Samantas and the learned people of the Ghatika of Kanchi selected Nandivarman Pallavamalla as the king.

Nandivarman II belonged to the collateral branch of Pallavas i.e. the Kadavas who were the descendants of Bhimavarman, the brother of Simhavishnu, and, thus, started the period of the later Pallavas of the Kadava line.

There was a renewal of conflict between the Pallavas and Chalukyas. Vikramaditya II invaded the Pallava kingdom, defeated Nandivarman and captured Kanchi.

The Chaluykan king Vikramaditya II, after scoring victory over the Pallava king, entered Kanchi – the city of Temples. He was wonderstruck by seeing the architectural grandeur of the Kailsanatha temple, the gem of the Dravidian style of Architecture. Though the Chalukyan emperor captured Kanchipuram this time the capital city was not devastated and he decided to retreat to his territory.

Nandivarman was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning. During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were constructed. The celebrated Vaishnava saint Tirumangai Alvar was his contemporary.

End of the Pallava Rule

Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi may be regarded as the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, the Western Gangas and the Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom.

Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter offered his daughter Reva in marriage to former and saved temporarily the collapse of the Pallava Kingdom.

The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE. Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) were the other rulers.

Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king. The Chola king Aditya I defeated Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end.

Pallava Administration

The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. Monarchy was the order of the day. The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honour, judge, and leader of the armed forces.

Under the Pallavas, kingship was held to be of divine origin and was hereditary. The king took high-sounding titles, some of which, such as maharajadhiraja, were borrowed from north Indian traditions.

The king was assisted by a group of ministers, and in the later Pallava period this ministerial council played a prominent part in state policy. Some of the ministers bore semi-royal titles and may well have been appointed from among the feudatories.

Distinctions are made between amatyas and mantrins. While a mantri is generally understood to be a diplomat, amatya is a counsellor.

Mantri Mandala was a council of ministers.

Rahasyadhikrita was a private secretary of the king.

Manikka-pandaram-kappan was an officer in charge of the treasury (Manikka – valuables; Pandaram – treasury; Kappan – keeper).

Kodukkappillai was the officer of gifts. They were central officers under the Pallava king.

Kosa-adhyaksa was the supervisor of the Manikkappandaram-kappan.

Judicial courts were called Adhikarna Mandapa and judges called Dharmadhikarins.

Fines are mentioned in the Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in superior/ higher court) and Adhikaranadandam (fine in district level).

The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.

The governor of a province was advised and assisted by officers in charge of districts who worked in close
collaboration with local autonomous institutions, largely in an advisory capacity. They were built on local
relationship of caste, guilds, craftsmen and artisans (such as weavers and oil mongers), students, ascetics and priests.

The village was the basic unit of administration. The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies. Sabha, Urar etc., were the most popular assembles of this period. Every village had got a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana.

Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths etc. It appears that the village acted like self sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period. Entrusting the administration of a smaller area to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.

Land Grants during Pallavas

Land ownership was with the king, who could make revenue grants to his officers and land-grants to Brahmans, or else continue to have land cultivated by small scale cultivators and landlords. The latter was the most common practice. Crown lands were leased out to tenants-at-will.

The status of the village varied according to the tenures prevailing:

1 . The village with an inter-caste population paid land revenue.

2 . The brahmadeya villages were donated to a single Brahman or a group of Brahmans. These villages tended to be more prosperous than the others because no tax was paid.

3 . There were devadana villages, donated to a temple, and the revenue was consequently received by the temple authorities and not by the state. The temple authorities assisted the village by providing employment in the service of the temple. This last category of villages gained greater significance when
in later centuries the temples became the centres of rural life.

However, during the Pallava period the first two types of villages were predominant.

Village Life during Pallavas

In the village, the basic assembly was the sabha, which was concerned with all matters relating to the village, including endowments, land, irrigation, cultivation, punishment of crime, the keeping of a census and other necessary records.

Village courts dealt with petty criminal cases. At a higher level, in towns and districts, courts were presided over by government officers, with the king as the supreme arbiter of justice.

The sabha was a formal institution but it worked closely with the urar, an informal gathering of the entire village. Above this was a district council which worked with nadu or district administration.

Villages populated entirely or largely by Brahmans preserved records of the functioning of assemblies and councils. The link between the village assembly and the official administration was the headman of the village.

Tank Irrigation during Pallavas

A special category of land, eripatti or tank land, was known only in south India. This land was donated by individuals, the revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank.

Rainwater was stored in the tank so that land could be irrigated during the annual long, dry spell. The tank, lined with brick or stone, was built through the cooperative effort of the village, and its water was shared by all cultivators. The maintenance of these tanks was essential to the village.

Practically every inscription from the Pallava period pertaining to the rural affairs refers to the upkeep of the tank. Next in importance came wells.

Water was distributed by canals, which were fitted with sluices to regulate the water level and prevent overflowing at the source.

The distribution of water for irrigation was supervised by a special tank committee appointed by the village. Water taken in excess of allotted to a particular cultivator was taxed.

Revenue and Taxation under Pallavas

Land grants recorded mainly on copperplates provide detailed information on land revenues and taxation. Revenue came almost exclusively from rural sources, mercantile and urban institutions being largely unplanned.

Two categories of taxes were levied on the village. The land revenue paid by the cultivator to the state varied from 1/6th to 1/10th of the produce, and was collected by the village and paid to the state collector. In the second category were local taxes, also collected in the village but utilized for services in the village itself. The tax money was spent for repairing irrigation works, illuminating the temple, etc.

When the state land tax was inadequate, the revenue was supplemented by additional taxes on draught cattle, toddy-drawers, marriage parties, potters, goldsmiths, washermen, textile-manufacturers, weavers, brokers, letter-carriers, and the makers of ghee.

The loot and booty obtained in war added to the revenue of the state. Pallava considered war to be very important and a series of sculptures depicting the important events connected with the reign of Nandivarama Pallava, notably Pallava troops attacking a fort are seen in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram. This fort is depicted in the sculptures as having high ramparts with soldiers attacking it and elephants standing near it.

Pallava Army

Much of the state revenue went to maintain the army. The king maintained a standing army under his direct control. The army consisted of foot-soldiers, cavalry and a small force of elephants.

Chariots were by now almost out of use and in any case were ineffective in the hilly terrains, as much of the fighting took place there. Cavalry, though effective, was expensive, as horses had to be imported.

The Pallavas developed a navy and built dockyards at Mamallapuram and Nagapattinam. However, the Pallava navy was inconsiderable compared to the naval strength of the Cholas who succeeded them.

Trade under Pallavas

Kanchipuram was an important trading centre in the Pallava period. The merchants had to obtain license to market their goods.

Barter system generally prevailed but later the Pallavas issued gold and silver coins. Merchants had their own organizations such as Manigramam.

In foreign trade, spices, cotton textiles, precious stones and medicinal plants were exported to Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China and Burma. Mamallapuram was an important seaport.

Traders founded guilds and called themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar and others. Their main guild functioned at Aihole.

Foreign merchants were known as Nanadesi. It had a separate flag with the figure of bull at the centre, and they enjoyed the right of issuing vira-sasanas. The jurisdiction of this guild stretched over entire south-east Asia. The chief of this guild is registered in the inscriptions as pattanswamy, pattnakilar, and
dandanayaka. Its members were known as ayyavole-parameswariyar.

Maritime Trade under Pallavas

Unlike in the Ganges plain, where large areas were available for cultivation, the regions controlled by the Pallavas commanded a limited income from land. Mercantile activity had not developed sufficiently to make a substantial contribution to the economy.

The Pallavas had maritime trade with south-east Asia, where by now there were three major kingdoms: Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and Sumatra).

On the west coast, the initiative in the trade with the West was gradually passing into the hands of the foreign traders settled along the coast, mainly Arabs. Indian traders were becoming suppliers of goods rather than carriers of goods to foreign countries, and communication with the west became indirect, via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.

Society during Pallavas

Brahmins as learned scholars in literature, astronomy, law and others functioned as the royal counsellors. Not only were they in the teaching profession, they were also involved in agriculture, trade and war. They were exempted from paying taxes and capital punishment.

The next important social group which ruled the state was called sat-kshatryas (quality kshatriyas). Not all the kshatryas were of warring groups; some of them were involved in trading as well. They also enjoyed the right to read the Vedas, a privilege denied to lower varnas. The trading group maintained warriors for protection and founded trade guilds.

The people who were at the bottom of the society worked in agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicraft works. People engaged in scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning and leather works were positioned outside the varna system.

Aryanisation or the northern influence on the south picked up pace during the Pallava period. This is evident from the royal grants issued by the kings. The caste structure had firmly established. Sanskrit
came to be held in high esteem.

Kanchipuram continued to be a great seat of learning.

Education and Literature during Pallavas

Sanskrit was the recognized medium, and was also the official language at the court, which led to its adoption in literary circles. Apart from the university at Kanchi, which acquired a fame equal to that of the Nalanda, there were a number of other Sanskrit colleges.

Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit. Two extraordinary works in Sanskrit set the standard for Sanskrit literature in the south: Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita. Dandin of Kanchipuram, author of the great treatise on rhetoric Kavyadarsa, seems to have stayed in Pallava court for some time.

The Tamil literature had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. Tiruvelluvar, the author of Kural lived during this period. Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated Mahabharata into Tamil. The “Thevaram‟ composed by the Nayanars and “Nalayaradivyaprabhandam‟ composed by the Alvars represent the religious literature of the period.

Religion during Pallavas

Perhaps the most obvious sign of the influence of Aryan culture in the south was the pre-eminent position given to Brahmins. They gained materially through large gifts of land.

Aryanisation is also evident in the evolution of educational institutions in the Pallava kingdom. In the early part of this period education was controlled by Jains and Buddhists, but gradually the Brahmins superseded them. Buddhism and Jainism lost their appeal.

The Jains who had brought with them their religious literature in Sanskrit and Prakrit, began to use Tamil. Jainism was extremely popular, but the competition of Hinduism in the succeeding centuries greatly reduced the number of its adherents.

In addition, Mahendravarman I lost interest in Jainism and took up the cause of Saivism, thus depriving the Jains of valuable royal patronage. The Jains had developed a few educational centres near Madurai and Kanchi, and religious centres such as the one at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. But a vast majority of the Jaina monks tended to isolate themselves in small caves, in hills and forests.

Monasteries continued to be the nucleus of the Buddhist educational system and were located in the region of Kanchi, and the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari rivers. Buddhist centres were concerned
with the study of Buddhism, particularly as this was a period of intense conflict between orthodox and heterodox sects. But Buddhism was fighting a losing battle. Royal patronage, which the Buddhists lacked, gave an edge to the protagonists of Vedic religions.

In the eighth century the mathas (mutts) became popular. This was a combination of a rest house, a feeding-centre, and an education centre, which indirectly brought publicity to the particular sect with which it was associated.

The followers of Vedic religion were devoted to the worship of Siva. Mahendravarman was the first, during the middle of his reign, to adopt the worship of Siva. Many of the great Nayanmars and Alwars, Saiva and Vaishanava poet-saints lived during his time.

From the 7th century onwards the Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known Bhakti movement. The cult of Bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the South Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played a great part in propagating it.

The Vedic tradition was further reinforced by a movement started by Sankaracharya. This movement was aimed at cleaning the Vedic philosophy of its obscurities and its inconsistencies thereby making it both comprehensible and acceptable to the people at large. Sankaracharya achieved fame by advocating Advaita philosophy.

Art and Architecture under Pallavas

The contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian Art and Architecture is immense. In fact the history of Dravidian style of Indian Architecture in the south began with the Pallavas. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic rathas and culminated in structural temples.

Rock-cut temples were common in the Pallava period. The structural temples and the free-standing temples at Aihole and Badami in the Deccan and at Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram provide testimony
to the architectural excellence achieved during the period.

The Five Rathas popularly called as the ‘Pancha Pandava Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas)’ at Mamallapuram signifies five different styles of Architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest Architectural master piece of Pallava Art.

The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture. The Mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The sculpture depicting the Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna at Mamallapuram is a master piece of classical art.

The Deccan style of sculpture shows a close affinity to Gupta art. Pallava sculpture owed a lot to the Buddhist tradition. Yet the sculpture and the architecture of the Deccan and Tamil Nadu were not mere off shoots of the northern tradition. They are distinctly recognizable as different and have an originality of their own. The basic form was taken from the older tradition, but the end result unmistakably reflected its own native brilliance.

Music, Dance and Painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal belonged to the Pallava period.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

QUES . Who among the following rulers in ancient India had assumed the titles ‘Mattavilasa’, ‘Vichitrachitta’ and ‘Gunabhara’? UPSC PRELIMS 2025

(a) Mahendravarman I

(b) Simhavishnu

(c) Narasimhavarman I

(d) Simhavarman

Show Answer